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update 2000.06.29.
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===== ±è Á¾
Çö (Peter/Jong Hyun Kim),M.D. °¡Å縯´ëÇб³ Àǰú´ëÇÐ
¼Ò¾Æ°úÇÐ Á¶±³¼ö. Assistant Professor. Division
of Infectious Diseases, Department of
Pediatrics, St. Vincent's Hopital, College
of Medicine, The Catholic University of
Korea
E-mail:jonghyunped@yahoo.co.kr
2000.12.25.
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No. 22,
November 1996
Hepatitis B and breastfeeding
A statement prepared
jointly by the Global Programme for Vaccines
and Immunization (GPV) and the Divisions
of Child Health and Development (CHD), and
Reproductive Health (Technical Support )
(RHT) World Health Organization
Introduction
The question of whether breastfeeding
plays a significant role in the transmission
of hepatitis B has been asked for many years.
It is important given the critical role
of breastfeeding and the fact that about
5% of mothers worldwide are chronic hepatitis
B virus (HBV) carriers. Examination of relevant
studies indicates that there is no evidence
that breastfeeding poses any additional
risk to infants of HBV carrier mothers.
The use of hepatitis B vaccine in infant
immunization programmes, recommended by
WHO and now implemented in 80 countries,
is a further development that will eventually
eliminate risk of transmission. This document
discusses the issues relevant to breastfeeding
and HBV transmission, and provides guidance
from a WHO perspective.
Hepatitis B virus infection
HBV infection is of major
public health importance world-wide. It
can cause asymptomatic infection, clinical
acute hepatitis, fulminant hepatitis, or
persistent infection which is known as the
chronic carrier state. Globally, there are
over 350 million chronic carriers of HBV
who are at high risk of developing severe
sequelae including chronic active hepatitis,
cirrhosis, and primary hepatocellular carcinoma,
complications which kill more than 1 million
persons per year. It has been estimated
that as many as 25-35% of individuals who
become chronic carriers will eventually
die from these complications (1).
Transmission of HBV
The pattern of transmission
of HBV varies with carrier prevalence. In
areas where persistent infection is highly
endemic (including East and Southeast Asia
and Sub-Saharan Africa), transmission is
mainly either perinatal, from a carrier
mother to her newborn, or through close
contact between children. (horizontal transmission).
In Asia approximately 40% of HBV carrier
women of childbearing age are also positive
for the hepatitis "e" antigen (HBeAg) and
these mothers have a 70% to 90% chance of
infecting their newborn perinatally. Perinatal
transmission of HBV occurs mainly during
or soon after delivery, through contact
of the infant with maternal blood and other
body fluids. In Asia, perinatal transmission
accounts for approximately 25% to 30% of
the carrier pool. Outside Asia, approximately
10% of HBV carrier women of childbearing
age have HBeAg, and perinatal transmission
is a much less important contributor to
the carrier pool. In areas of low endemicity
(including Western Europe and North America),
perinatal transmission is less common and
transmission occurs mainly through blood
and by sexual contact between adults (2).
However, most industrialized countries screen
every pregnant women for HBsAg, and treat
infants of carrier mothers with specific
hyperimmune globulin, (Hepatitis B Immune
Globulin, or HBIG) and hepatitis B (HB)
vaccine, (3).
Risk of transmission
by breastfeeding
Breastfeeding has been suggested
as an additional mechanism by which infants
may acquire HBV infection, because small
amounts of Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)
have been detected in some samples of breastmilk.
However, there is no evidence that breastfeeding
increases the risk of mother to child transmission.
A follow up study of 147 infants born to
mothers known to be carriers of HBV in Taiwan
(4) found similar rates of HBV infection
in 92 children who were breastfed compared
to 55 who were bottle fed. A study in Britain,
involving 126 subjects, also showed no additional
risk for breastfed versus non breastfed
infants of carrier mothers (5). This study
included the measurement of HBeAg status
of the mothers, but found no association
between maternal e-antigen status and transmission
rates. These findings suggest strongly that
any risk of transmission associated with
breastmilk is negligible compared to the
high risk of exposure to maternal blood
and body fluids at birth. Experts on hepatitis,
however, do have concerns that breast pathology
such as cracked or bleeding nipples or lesions
with serous exudates could expose the infant
to infectious doses of HBV.
Prevention of perinatal
and horizontal HBV transmission
Active immunization with
HB vaccine is effective for the prevention
of both perinatal and horizontal transmission
of HBV (6-7). Immunization can prevent development
of the persistent carrier state in 70-90%
of infants of carrier mothers, and in up
to 95% of infants who are infected horizontally.
Administration of HBIG within 24 hours of
birth together with the first dose of vaccine
increases the protection up to 85-90% in
infants of HBV carrier mothers (1). However,
neither screening of pregnant women for
HBV infection nor use of HBIG are feasible
in most developing countries. Routine immunization
of infants with HB vaccine is therefore
recommended, the first dose to be given
within 48 hours of birth where feasible,
and subsequent doses with routine childhood
immunizations. Delivery of HB vaccine at
birth is possible with clinic or hospital
deliveries but is more difficult following
home deliveries where contact with the immunization
system does not take place for several weeks
or months. A dose of HB vaccine around the
time of birth is more important in Asia
where perinatal transmission is commoner.
Infants who have received their first dose
of vaccine can safely breastfeed (8).
In areas where infants
are not routinely immunized against HBV,
the issue of wet-nurses and the use of
donated breastmilk must be considered.
Most non-carrier mothers in endemic areas
have previously been infected with HBV
and have recovered, and have passively
transferred anti-HBs antibody through
the placenta to the infant, protecting
them against HBV infection for approximately
6 months. In many industrial countries,
wet-nurses and donor mothers are screened
for HBsAg, and if positive their milk
is not used for infants other than their
own. However, this strategy is less feasible
in developing countries where HBV testing
may be unavailable. Infants immunized
with HB vaccine have no risk of HBV infection
through wet nurses or donated breastmilk.
Recommendations
WHO recommends that all infants
receive hepatitis B vaccine as part of routine
childhood immunization. Where feasible,
the first dose should be given within 48
hours of birth or as soon as possible thereafter.
This will substantially reduce perinatal
transmission, and virtually eliminate any
risk of transmission through breastfeeding
or breastmilk feeding. Immunization of infants
will also prevent infection from all other
modes of HBV transmission.
WHO
and UNICEF recommend that all
infants be exclusively breastfed for at
least 4 and if possible 6 months, and
that they continue to breastfeed up to
two years of age or beyond with the addition
of adequate complementary foods from about
6 months of age. There is a considerable
risk of morbidity and mortality among
infants who are not breastfed. There
is no evidence that breastfeeding from
an HBV infected mother poses an additional
risk of HBV infection to her infant, even
without immunization. Thus, even where
HBV infection is highly endemic and immunization
against HBV is not available, breastfeeding
remains the recommended method of infant
feeding.
References
- Global control of
Hepatitis B through vaccination: Role
of Hepatitis B vaccine in the Expanded
Programme on Immunization, Maynard
JE, Kane MA and Hadler SC, Rev Inf Dis
1989;11 (suppl 3):574-578
- Protocol for assessing
prevalence of Hepatitis B infection
in antenatal patients, World Health
Organization, WHO/EPI/GEN/90.6
- Protection against
viral hepatitis, Recommendations of
Immunization Practices Advisory Committee
(ACIP), MMWR 1990;39(no S-2)
- Evidence against
breastfeeding as a mechanism for vertical
transmission of Hepatitis B, Beasley
PR, Shiao I-S, Stevens CE, Meng H-C,
Lancet 1975;ii:740-41
- Vertical transmission
of hepatitis B surface antigen in carrier
mothers in two west London hospitals,
Woo D, Davies PA, Harvey DR, Hurley
R, Waterson AP, Arch Child Dis, 1979;54:670-75
- Prevention of perinatally
transmitted Hepatitis B virus infections
with Hepatitis B Immune globulin and
Hepatitis B vaccine, Beasley RP,
Hwang LY, Lee GCY, et al. Lancet 1983;ii:1099-102
- Prevention of the
HBsAg carrier state in newborn infants
of mothers who are chronic carriers
of HBsAg and HBeAg by administration
of Hepatits B vaccine and hepatitis
B immunoglobulin, Wong VCW, IP HMH,
Reesink HW, et al. Lancet 1984;1:921-6
- Breastfeeding babies
of HBsAg-positive mothers, Tseng
AKY, Lam CWK, Tam J. Lancet 1988; ii:1032
For further information,
contact:
The Director, Division of Child Health and
Development
World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27,
Switzerland
Tel: +41 22 791-2632, Fax: +41 22 791-4853,
E-mail:tullochj@who.ch
World Wide Web: http://cdrwww.who.ch
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